Administration of British Empire in India
When delineated on the basis of territorial grounds, British Empire prior to and after World War I had differed vastly in almost all aspects. Practically seizing everything of all the sections of Asia under its sway, British Empire had even extended its prolonged arm towards Africa as well as Australia.However, as one comprehends in present times, British Empire indeed had redefined its territorial and administrational periphery during its rendezvous in the then India, moving on towards the mid-21st century. Administration of British Empire upon what is referred to as “British India”, had all begun during the reign of East India Company, when the Company had decided to transact trade and business ties, extending towards the eastern civilization. That was the time during mid-17th century, when Islamic rule under Mughal Empire was in its last phase, stripped off of all its erstwhile shining glory and pageantry. As such, British intervention upon Indian administration and governance was readily accepted by Mughal rulers, deeming Indian trading and merchandise to swell up in the upcoming years to come.
British East India Company had firmly targeted the port cities of India, henceforth bringing in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and to some extent, Surat into immense prominence. Flow of business and commerce began to augment by just some months, with industrial builds coming into focus. Through repeated voyages to and from England, the East India Company started to bring in skilled workers, with high-ranking officers also taking a hierarchical position. The so-called “revenue earning” during British India, was taken up seriously by British administration, who were gradually acquiring the place of the setting Mughal dynasty. The country could no longer be referred to as the one ruled by Persian Islamic rulers, who essentially followed an Oriental system of governance; on the contrary, Indian scenario was slowly and steadily witnessing a change on administrational domain.
What was previously known as just a Company dealing in trade and business of spices, clothes, fineries and everything attractive to English population, was no longer just a mere Company. Taking wholesome advantage of the weaklings like Mughals or any other restricted ruler of a princely state, East India Company had cleverly and shrewdly taken over the entire Indian administration. This they had perhaps long planned in their chartered discussions, with rulers back in England already framing a charter of British Indian administration.
Henceforth, administration of British Empire always had a purpose of its own, with the system ofGovernor-Generals coming into force. The princely states were still under the declaration of self-ruling, however, staying subordinate to Englishmen. Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were proclaimed Presidency towns, holding in much value of their own, and governing their separate sections of east, north, west and south. High-ranking men already serving in English administration in Great Britain, were called forth to take the seat of Governor-Generals. Warren Hastings, the legendary man of both good and dark sides, was one of the first in this section. India was declared to be governed separately into various states, with one single capital to be based in Calcutta. The time being spoken about is the late 18th century, with the previous years already been fruitfully spent by English to expand their territorial integrity. And herein comes the gradual beginning of the end, i.e. terrible declination of Indian citizens under the crushing hands of British generals and the ironical rise of English population in wrongly-captured hands. Whatever beneficial deeds the British administration had performed, was completely overshadowed and shunned by the incredible pitiless deeds they had performed and was still in a continual process.
East India Company ruling during the era of British India for the first time in mid-1800s started to review resistance in the form of wars by Marathas and Sikhs. Hindu rulers like Shivaji or Rani of Jhansi Lakshmi Bai had not planned to take such cunning men lying down. As a result, British top-rankers started to usher in the framing and passing of rules into harsh laws, which further held back Indian rights of freedom. Indeed, law and order during administration of British Empire is not an aspect that is still looked at as something much promising and beneficial to natives.
The Policy of Ring Fence or Buffer State, British Administration in India however stood in somewhat stark contrast against anti-Indian British law and order. With the arrival of Lord Wellesley to India, the stringent motive of the Company was pretty reduced, with petty states like Oudh, Hyderabad and Mysore acceding to British pressure. The high-point of East India Company resistance was seen during the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, also legendary as the Revolt of 1857.
The magnanimous unity amongst Muslim and Hindu rulers to rise up against such oppressors and nepotists was a sheer element of wonder and superb strategy. This historic and fate-deciding First Battle of Indian Independence was one that had nearly alarmed generals back in England, who had since reviewed the Company incurring huge losses for the administration and trade for both English in India and Britain. Time had once more arrived for India to witness a policy of change for the still-living, as millions had laid down their lives during the Revolt, dreaming for their motherland.
Administration of British Empire post Sepoy Mutiny, precisely from 1858, began to witness an impermanent time of crisis, with neither England nor the East India Company coming to a conclusion about their ruling in India. However, the Company was forever frozen and dissolved as a cohesive political unit in India, with its administrators returning back to England. Post 1876, the princely states in India and the political union of India was transferred and annexed under direct ruling from England under Her Highness, Queen Victoria. Each Indian had to from then onwards accept British paramountcy, with the Queen vowing to bring in massive changes, facilitating the Indians.
The era of late 1800s, culminating in the mid-1900s was perhaps the most crucial and deciding time period in British Raj. Administration of British Empire had witnessed an absolute mish-mash of ruling policies in every sphere of daily life, that included revenue earning through indigo plantation, policy of Divide and Rule and passing of umpteen laws into acts, to curb down natives against their civil or human rights.
Nationalists, revolutionists, freedom fighters - in whatever name they are respected, arose against such unruly government from every Indian household. Equipped with educative values, intelligence and valiance to withstand British guns, these nationalists possessed the prowess to protest and march into the court houses that had come into force with the dawning of a new century. Supreme Court or the state High Courts were begun, together with the concept of an Executive Council, wherein, business of each government department was delegated to and became the responsibility of a single Council member - under Lord Canning, first Viceroy to India. The concept of Local Self Government also had come into existence, owing to the Minto-Morley Reforms Act in 1909 (also known as the Government of India Act 1909).
Considered a milestone under administration during British Empire, this act had only paved way for further restrictive acts, like the various Government of India Acts. These acts had heavily borrowed from the acts devised by Lord Dalhousie and his ruling acts like Permanent Settlement Act 0f 1793, or theVernacular Press Act of 1878.
Administration of British Empire during the dawning of 20th century was indeed defined on the lines of these British Indian Acts, regulating and horribly crushing the native press, which had risen its head to blatantly protest these ruthless clandestine English motives. Policy of Equal Federation andPolicy of subordinate Union were some of the other governing measures that had completely shattered Indian conscience during and after the two World Wars. Freedom fighters wholly echoed against suchdivide and rule policy to mother antagonism within religious factions, which had finally turned into a reality in 1947, with Partition of India, perhaps forever darkening the wholesome vision of Indian Independence.
Policy of Equal Federation
The policy of equal federation was introduced in the years 1935. The Indian princes were invited at the round table conference during the year of 1930-32. In the year 1935, the Indian government proclaimed the federal structure of the Indian state. TheGovernment of India Act was passed in 1935. By this act the Indian states were to be allotted 125 out of 375 seats in the Federal Assembly and 104 out of 260 seats in the Council of States. The Federation of India was to come into existence only when the rulers of the states representing not less than one-half of the total population of the state.
However the Policy of equal federation did not prove successful. This is so because the Federation never came into existence because the requisite number of states is not agreeing to join it. Thecongress successes in the election of 1937 had effect on the states where the agitation started for civil liberties and responsible government. However with the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 finally shattered the federal scheme.
Policy of subordinate Union
Lord Canning - Policy of subordinate Union, British Administration in India. The direct control power assumed by the British crown in 1858.The assumption of the direct responsibility somewhat defined the interrelationship between the Indian states and the British Crown. The British Crown accepted the treaties and the agreements made between the Indian native princes with the Company. Moreover the company agreed to maintain all the terms and the conditions of the agreement and accepted the same from the native princes.
The years following the proclamation of Queen in 1858, the period witnessed a transformation in the policy of the British in their process of territorial extension. The policy of annexation was completelyabandoned by the queen & the doctrine of Lapse was completely abolished. This change was due to the loyal attitude of the princes during the great revolt of 1857-58. Lord canning gave a practical shape to this new policy by granting 140 sanads to the Hindu and Muslim princes. The new policy was primarily intended to punish the rulers for their misgovernment. If necessary the rulers could be deposed but his state was not annexed by the British government.
This form of policy was one of the tactical practices of the British. Instead of direct annexation, they adopted a way in which the control of the state automatically came in their hands. Under the East India Company the sanction of the Governor General was necessary only in case of the downfall or the absence of the natural heirs. After 1858, the dominion of the Mughal Crown was completely shattered and the British Crown became the undisputed authority of India. As a result all successions had to seek regularly the sanction of the Crown directly. Under this new policy the native princes obtained the throne not by the legacy, but as a gift of the British crown. Normally every ruler was formally installed on the throne by the British government. At the same time the British government also acted as the guardian of the minor prince and managed the administration of the state during minority.
Under the new policy of subordination the principle of the equal status of the Indian prince with the Crown came to an end. Canning referred to the Indian native princes as the vassals or feudatories. The Crown also exercised the right to regulate the status and the salutes of the Indian princes in all matters of ceremonials. Just as the Mughal rulers before 1858 granted the honors and titles, the Crown awarded the titles and decoration to the Indian princes. The government of India exercised the right to interfere in the internal affairs of the Indian states. However the British were further helped by the Indian princes themselves to encroach in their internal sovereignty. Developments of an all India character compelled the rulers of Indian states to fall in line with the governments of India’s policy. The development of the modern means of transport, communication, public press and an all India public services all directed to the new policy of the British government.
Further the states were required to assist in the military plans and provide all the facilities for movement of the Indian army. The government of India exercised a complete and acknowledged control over the externals and the internal affairs of the Indian states. In this way the Indian Government (the British crown) could declare war, peace or neutrality for the Indian states. The period also witnessed the growth of the political practice, which further circumscribed the rights of the Indian princes. Thus the new trend seemed to reduce all the Indian states into a vassal state or feudatory, whether they were treaty states or enjoying varying degrees of authority.
From 1905 onwards the governments followed a policy of cordial co-operation towards the Indian states and the growth of the political unrest in British India puts the Government of India in trouble. Hence they used the policy of subordinate union as an instrument to subdue the revolutionary activities. The British Government thought it to be expedient to utilize the supports of the India princes to counter the progressive and the revolutionary activities. Hence by the policy of subordinate union the Government of India and the native princes formed a common front to safeguard their position and the privilege. The government of India no longer feared the resistance of the Indian princess. Thus the policy of Subordinate isolation ultimately gave rise to the policy of Subordinate union.
During the First World War, the government of India often called the Indian princes to take part in the consultation on matters of Imperial Defence. Lord Chelmsford carries the scheme of conferences. Later the framer of the Montague-Chelmsford reforms favored the formation of Council of Princes. These recommendations formed the necessity of the formation of the chamber of princes. The chamber of princes formally inaugurated in February 1921.
The Indian princes thus become the favorite family of the British princes and the chamber. The Indian princes collectively reorganized the independent constituent of the Empire. The chamber of Princes were mainly entrusted with the power to settle the minor discord within their Empire and to work according to the instructions of the British Government.
